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Rabies Vaccines 2025

Rabies is a vaccine-preventable viral disease found in more than 150 countries and territories, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Two types of vaccines protect people against Rabies: nerve tissue and cell culture vaccines. Cell culture vaccines, which are more affordable and require less vaccine, have been developed recently. Unlike conventional, inactivated rabies vaccines, live-attenuated viruses are genetically modified viruses that can replicate in a vaccinated person without causing adverse effects while eliciting robust and effective immune responses against viral infection.

As of 2025, according to the WHO, intradermal immunization using cell-culture-based rabies vaccines is an acceptable alternative to standard intramuscular administration. In the United Kingdom, rabies vaccines must be inactivated or recombinant and approved for use in the country. 

Rabies Vaccines Approved

As of 2025, the WHO has pre-qualified rabies vaccines, including Bavarian Nordic's RabAvert vaccIVAX-S by Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd., VaxiRab N by Zydus Lifesciences Limited, and VERORAB by Sanofi Pasteur.

RabAvert is a vaccine that contains an inactivated rabies antigen, indicated for preexposure vaccination, primary and booster doses, and post-exposure prophylaxis against Rabies in all age groups.

Chirorab®, previously known as Rabipur, is an inactivated rabies virus of Flury LEP. Chiron Behring Vaccines is relaunching Rabipur, a purified chick-embryo-celline. It will continue manufacturing at its WHO-prequalified facility in Ankleshwar, Gujarat, India.

Rabipur is an inactivated rabies vaccine produced by Valneva SE, which has over 35 years of worldwide clinical experience.

Rabivax-S is a lyophilized vaccine manufactured by Serum Institute of India Pvt. Ltd. It contains inactivated, purified rabies antigen and was developed using Vero cells (ATCC CCL81), derived from the Pitman-Moore strain. The inactivated vaccine is freeze-dried until ready for immunization.

Rabies Vaccine Candidates

Rabies vaccine candidates are seeking participants for various clinical trials in 2025. 

YS Biopharma Co., Ltd. PIKA Rabies Vaccine utilizes the company's proprietary PIKA adjuvant technology, designed to produce a more robust immune response in a shorter timeframe than traditional rabies vaccines. On April 9, 2024, YS Bio announced positive interim results from the ongoing Phase 3 clinical trial, indicating that the PIKA Rabies Vaccine has successfully met the primary endpoints and has the potential to achieve best-in-class accelerated protection and meet the WHO's goal of a one-week rabies vaccine regimen to replace the conventional three- or four-week regimens. On June 1, 2023, the Food and Drug Administration of the Philippines approved a Phase 3 clinical trial, and on May 16, 2023, Pakistan issued study approval.

Replicate Bioscience announced on September 12, 2023, the dosing of the first participant in a Phase 1 trial of its RBI-4000 vaccine candidate for rabies prevention. The Trial marks the first time a human has been dosed with Replicate's next-generation srRNA technology, which will be a benchmark for its utility in this indication.

VitriVax, Inc. received a grant of up to $5 million from the Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations to develop further Atomic Layering Thermostable Antigen and Adjuvant (ALTA) technology, using Rabies as a vaccine target. ALTA® could replace multi-dose vaccines for protection against infectious diseases with a single-administration alternative.

Rabies Vaccine Preexposure Prophylaxis (PrEP)

The WHO recommends preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for individuals at high risk of exposure. The WHO position paper on rabies vaccines recommends a one-week, two-site intradermal post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) schedule with 0.1 mL of vaccine injected on days 0, 3, and 7. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) updated its recommendations for rRabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for humans, replacing the three-dose vaccination schedule with a two-dose program intended to protect people for at least three years. On May 6, 2022, the U.S. CDC published Use of a Modified Preexposure Prophylaxis Vaccination Schedule to Prevent Human Rabies: Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices — United States, 2022. 

Rabies Vaccine Breakthrough Infections

A case report by Holzbauer et al. in the March 2023 issue of Clinical Infectious Diseases is not a situation of inappropriate prophylaxis; rather, it represents a textbook response to accurate exposure to Rabies. An 84-year-old awoke to a bat biting his finger. The man washed his finger with soap and water, as recommended. Post-exposure prophylaxis was initiated three days after exposure. He received a complete four-vaccine regimen and more than the recommended 20 IU/kg of human rabies immunoglobulin (the actual dose was reportedly 30.9 IU/kg, as determined by potency testing of the immunoglobulin used), partially injected into the bite site, with the remaining amount given intramuscularly. Yet, five months later, he developed clinical Rabies and succumbed to it.

Importation of Dogs Without Rabies

In the U.S., stray dog control programs were initiated in the 1940s, and routine rabies vaccination of owned dogs eliminated the canine rabies virus variant from circulation by 2008. The American Animal Hospital Association Canine Vaccination Guidelines were updated in 2022. As of August 2023, a valid CDC Rabies Vaccination and Microchip Record is needed to obtain a permit or make a reservation. The CDC does not accept foreign-issued pet passports or other certificates for rabies vaccinations administered outside the United States. Rabies-vaccinated dogs vaccinated in the U.S. by a U.S.-licensed veterinarian may re-enter the country from a high-risk country without a CDC Dog Import Permit if the dog has a current, valid U.S.-issued rabies vaccination certificate and an ISO-compatible microchip. The CDC has temporarily suspended the importation of dogs from high-risk countries with Rabies until July 31, 2024.

Rabies Vaccines Raccoons

The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service announced on August 4, 2023, that it will begin its annual distribution of RABORAL V-RG®, an oral rabies vaccine bait, in select areas in the eastern United States to prevent the spread of raccoon rabies. Raccoons, foxes (including red and gray varieties), skunks, and bats are considered primary carriers of the rabies virus in the United States.

Travel Vaccine Certificates, Passports, Visa, Green Card 2025

Various countries require proof of immunization as a prerequisite for obtaining a visa or entering their territory. Vaccine passports are digital credentials that confirm a person has been vaccinated against particular diseases. The World Health Organization (WHO) Global Digital Health Certification Network (GDHCN) became effective in Europe on July 1, 2023. The GDHCN's digital capabilities may include verification of vaccinations, the International Patient Summary, verification of vaccination certificates within and across borders, and certification of public health professionals through the WHO Academy. The WHO published the Digital Documentation of Certificates: Vaccination Status and Test Results in 2021 and 2022, respectively.

In 2023, the WHO endorsed the European Union (EU) digital certification system. The EU Digital Certificate has been issued across 51 countries.

U.S. Passport, Security Notices, Health Advisories

The U.S. Department of State publishes information for visa and passport applications, as well as for countries, to help travelers assess their risks. If Americans are overseas and need emergency assistance, they should contact the nearest U.S. embassy or consulate, says the State Department. From Overseas, call +1 202-501-4444. Updated FAQs about U.S. passport and visa operations are on this State Department webpage. In addition, view travel requirements for countries edited by Sherpa. Choose a country on this map to begin your search.

The State Department launched the Bureau of Global Health Security and Diplomacy on August 1, 2023. The Bureau's overarching mission is to fortify the global health security architecture to effectively prevent, detect, control, and respond to infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS. By leveraging and coordinating U.S. foreign assistance, the Bureau aims to foster robust international cooperation and enhance protection for the United States and the global community against health threats through strengthened systems and policies.

U.S. Transportation Security Administration

The U.S. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) provides a range of customer service resources to support travelers. PreCheck lanes are available at your airport; you can search for them using this link. The TSA has a team dedicated to answering questions related to prohibited and permitted items, identification requirements, and other related topics. AskTSA is available 365 days a year on these social media networks: X (@AskTSA), Facebook Messenger (www.fb.com/AskTSA), Apple Business Chat (AskTSA), and by texting "Travel" to AskTSA (275-872).

On May 6, 2025, the Turkish Directorate General of Civil Aviation issued a statement (UOD-2025/01) warning airline passengers that standing up before the plane has come to a complete stop and vaping or smoking on board are prohibited. Turkish Airlines may fine violators around $70 per violation.

A 2023 report from the International Air Transport Association indicates an increase in the rate of reported unruly passenger incidents. Based on over 24,500 incident reports from more than 50 operators globally, there was one incident for every 480 flights in 2023, compared to one incident for every 568 flights in 2022.

U.S. Visa Waiver Program

The U.S. Visa Waiver Program is an international travel facility that allows citizens of select countries to visit the U.S. without requiring a traditional visa. Under this program, a person can stay in the U.S. for a maximum of 90 days. Under this program, even without a visa, there are certain conditions, such as possessing an e-passport and obtaining prior permission online through the Electronic System for Travel Authorization. Visitors must meet all of the requirements to travel to the United States on the VWP.

U.S. Green Card Applications

Effective January 22, 2025, the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) waived the requirement that applicants for adjustment of status to lawful permanent resident present documentation on their Form I-693, Report of Immigration Medical Examination and Vaccination Record, indicating that they received the COVID-19 vaccination. USCIS will not issue any Request for Evidence or Notice of Intent to Deny related to proving a COVID-19 vaccination. USCIS will not deny any adjustment of status application based on the applicant's failure to present documentation showing receipt of the COVID-19 vaccination.

International Certificates of Vaccination or Prophylaxis

The International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (ICVP), also known as the yellow card, is required to enter various countries internationally. The WHO published a Country List to identify which countries require an ICVP.

REAL ID Act

All U.S. states, the District of Columbia, and four of five U.S. territories covered by the REAL ID Act and related regulations are issuing REAL ID-compliant licenses and identification cards. In addition, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced in December 2022 its intent to extend the REAL ID full enforcement date by 24 months, from May 3, 2023, to May 7, 2025. The REAL ID Act establishes minimum security standards for state-issued driver's licenses and identification cards. Under the new regulations, beginning May 7, 2025, every traveler 18 years or older will need a REAL ID-compliant license or identification card, a state-issued enhanced license, or another TSA-acceptable form of identification at airport security checkpoints for domestic air travel. 

U.S. Customs and Border Protection

If you are a U.S. citizen planning to travel abroad, you must comply with the document requirements for that country. Each individual arriving in the U.S. must complete the CBP Declaration Form 6059B. Examples and a sample declaration form can be found on the Customs Declaration Form. Additionally, the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) One app serves as a single portal for mobile applications and services. 

As a result of the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2018, the Electronic System for Travel Authorization (ESTA) travel promotion fee was increased from $10 to $17, in addition to a $4 operation fee. CBP began collecting the new fee amount on May 26, 2022. Individuals with an approved ESTA do not have to reapply, as an ESTA is valid for up to two years. ESTA is an automated system that determines the eligibility of visitors to travel to the United States under the Visa Waiver Program (VWP). Authorization via ESTA does not determine whether a traveler is admissible to the United States. Instead, U.S. CBP officers determine the admissibility of travelers upon their arrival.

Global Entry Program

Global Entry is a U.S. Customs and Border Protection program that allows expedited clearance for pre-approved, low-risk travelers upon arrival in the USA. Members enter through automatic kiosks at select airports. Additionally, the Enrollment on Arrival (EoA) program enables Global Entry applicants who are conditionally approved to complete their interviews upon arrival in the United States. A list of participating EoA airports is posted on this webpage. While Global Entry aims to speed travelers through the process, members may still be selected for further examination when entering the USA.

United Kingdom Electronic Travel Authorization 2025

As of June 2025, the UK Global Health Insurance Card (GHIC) enables UK residents to access necessary state healthcare in the European Economic Area (EEA) and certain other countries on the same basis as a resident of those countries. In 2025, all individuals wishing to travel to and through the United Kingdom, except British and Irish citizens, will be required to obtain an Electronic Travel Authorization (ETA). You can get an ETA instead of a visa if you're coming to the UK for up to six months for tourism, visiting family and friends, or business purposes, or if you're transiting through the UK for up to three months. ETAs for the last two years, enabling you to travel to the UK as often as possible. Prospective travelers should apply for the United Kingdom ETA using this IVISA link. The application costs £10 (about $12.50) to apply. As of 2025, the UK offers information on passport eligibility, fees, and the application process, including renewal and update procedures.

Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative

The Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI) is a joint plan between the U.S. Department of State and the Department of Homeland Security to implement the recommendations of the 9/11 Commission and the statutory mandates of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004. As a result, U.S. citizens can present a passport, a Passport Trusted Traveler Program card (such as NEXUS or SENTRI), or a U.S. military ID. Military identification card when traveling on official, oral orders; U.S. Merchant Mariner Document when traveling with official maritime business.

Note that children must also present their passports when traveling by air. Lawful permanent residents must continue to carry a valid Permanent Resident Card. A visa is not required. However, the Indian tribal card cannot be used for air travel.

Pet Passport and Tips

An EU Pet Passport is a universal document issued by an official veterinarian in a European Union (EU) Member State or another designated country, containing official health information related to a specific pet. A passport is issued to a dog, cat, or ferret after it has been taken to an EU veterinarian and vaccinated. The purpose of the EU Pet Passport is to simplify travel between the EU Member States. An EU Pet Passport cannot be obtained in the U.S.

On December 14, 2022, the TSA offered tips for traveling with small pets through security checkpoints this holiday season. Furthermore, the USDA has requirements for importing pet dogs from foreign countries. In particular, dogs traveling to the U.S. from countries affected by specific diseases may need additional inspection and/or quarantine. Use this digital menu to determine if your destination State has particular import requirements.

Airline Compensation Policies

Issued by the U.S. on August 29, 2022, a digital dashboard ensures that travelers have access to U.S. airlines' services to mitigate passenger inconveniences when the cause of a cancellation or delay was due to circumstances within the airline's control.

Traveler-based Genomic Surveillance

The CDC's Traveler-based Genomic Surveillance (TGS) program anonymously collects two nasal swab samples from consenting international travelers arriving at U.S. airports. The nasal sampling multipathogen pilot program tests people for Flu A/B, RSV, SARS-CoV-2, and 30 additional priority pathogens. As of September 2023, the TGS program had enrolled more than 360,000 air travelers from more than 135 countries. As of November 6, 2023, Ginkgo Bioworks and XpresCheck will implement the program in selected airports. 

Zoonotic Influenza Vaccines August 2023

Zoonotic influenza infections are caused by harmful germs, bacteria, parasites, and fungi, says the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). These germs cause illnesses in people, birds, and animals, ranging from mild to severe infections, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). As of August 2023, the CDC says annual 'flu shots' do not prevent zoonotic influenza infections such as swine flu (H3N2) or Avian influenza (Bird Flu). In September 2023, the U.S. CDC published Volume 29, Number 9, Research: Interspecies Transmission of Swine Influenza A Viruses and Human Seasonal Vaccine-Mediated Protection Investigated in a Ferret Model - results reaffirm the need for continuous influenza A virus surveillance in pigs and identification of candidate human vaccine viruses.

The WHO's Pandemic Influenza Preparedness (PIP) Framework is a World Health Assembly resolution adopted in 2011 as a global approach to pandemic influenza preparedness and response. If a pandemic influenza A virus changes and becomes transmissible from person to person while retaining its capacity to cause severe disease, the consequences for public health could be significant. The CDC says the severity is unpredictable because human immune systems have not established natural defenses. The most recent pandemic occurred in 2009, caused by an influenza A (H1N1) virus. Estimates indicate that the pandemic caused up to 400,000 deaths globally, with about 12,000 people in the U.S. 

Pandemic Influenza Vaccine

In April 2007, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) licensed the first inactivated influenza vaccine for people at increased risk of exposure to the H5N1 influenza virus subtype. It was derived from the A/Vietnam/1203/2004 influenza virus a, manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur Inc. Furthermore, four pandemic preparedness vaccines are authorized in Europe, which can be modified into pandemic influenza vaccines. The EMA conditionally Authorized AstraZeneca's Pandemic influenza vaccine H5N1 (P/LAIV) in May 2017 to prevent pandemic influenza in children and adolescents. Companies operating in the global swine flu vaccine market are Novartis AG, CSL Limited, Zydus Cadila, AstraZeneca plc, MedImmune, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi SA, Baxter, and Sinovac Biotech Ltd.

Bird Flu Vaccine

Avian influenza vaccine news is published on this webpage.

Swine Influenza (Swine Flu)

When a swine influenza virus (H3N2) is detected in a person, it is called a "variant influenza virus," says the CDC. When animal influenza viruses infect their natural host, they are named for that host, as in avian influenza viruses, swine influenza viruses, equine influenza viruses, etc. In 2005, human infection with the novel flu A virus became nationally notifiable in the United States. The term "swine flu" refers to swine influenza viruses infecting swine. There are different swine influenza virus subtypes and strains, some of which infect other animal species, including (rarely) humans. Most human infections with variant influenza viruses occur following proximity to swine. However, human-to-human transmission can occur, says the CDC. For recommendations on safe trade in animals and related products from countries affected by these influenza viruses, refer to WOAH guidance. 

The first swine influenza virus was found in pigs in 1918. Since 2005, 512 variant influenza virus infections (of different influenza A virus subtypes), including 37 (human infections with influenza A (H1N2)v viruses, were reported in the U.S. The CDC published an interactive analysis of Novel Influenza A Virus Infections in the U.S. A study (Volume 29, Number 9) published by the CDC in September 2023, results reaffirmed the need for continuous influenza A virus surveillance in pigs and identification of candidate human vaccine viruses.

On September 2, 2023, the Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Sport of the Netherlands notified the WHO of a laboratory-confirmed human infection with a swine-origin influenza A(H1N1) variant virus. On August 4, 2023, the CDC reported the first two U.S. human infections with swine flu viruses who attended different agricultural fairs in Michigan in 2023 and had exposure to pigs. On June 7, 2023, Brazil notified the WHO of a fatal laboratory-confirmed human case of infection with a swine-origin influenza A(H1N1) variant (v) virus in the inner state of Paraná. It's the third swine flu fatality. Taiwan's CDC reported its third H1N2 variant (H1N2v) influenza virus case in May 2023 involving girls who had contact with pig farms in central Taiwan. India reported 451 cases of H3N2 from January to March 5, 2023.

African Swine Fever

African Swine Fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and deadly viral disease affecting domestic and feral swine of all ages. The U.S. Department of Agriculture and the FDA say ASF cannot be transmitted from domestic and wild pigs to humans.

Langya Henipavirus

Langya henipavirus (LayV), also known as Langya virus, is a species of henipavirus detected in China's Shandong and Henan provinces. Media reports indicated that 35 people were infected from 2018 to August 2022. Hendra virus and Nipah virus from this genus are known to infect humans, with fruit bats as the natural host of both viruses.